The final stretch

The final stretch Were halfway through finals week. This semester, though, I lucked out on not having to take any once again. Last semester, I took all project-based classes. This semester, I have one class with an optional final, 6.034 Artificial Intelligence. The grading for this class is quite unique. We have 10 labs, 4 midterms each broken down to the Core section and the Spiritual/Right Now section. The final exam is there to provide an additional opportunity to improve your score on any section of one of the 4 midterms. I lucked out and squeezed a high enough grade on our fourth midterm that I dont need the take the final. For my other Course 6 class, 6.815 Digital and Computational Photography, we had our final project due last Wednesday on the last day of classes. We had the liberty to choose any topic or field to explore in the realm of computational photography, and I picked non-photorealistic rendering. The algorithm I implemented turned any photo into a brush-stroke painting depending on what type of paint brush was used. Fun stuff. But, the assignment and write-up was due at 21:00 sharp. At 20:50, I was putting last-minute touches to my write-up and cleaning up my code. At 20:55, I uploaded my work and the code crashed on the server. I panicked. Fortunately, the submission site did show the console logs, and there was something off about some of my print statements. I quickly commented them out, re-uploaded my code, and at 20:57, the code was still uploading. I panicked some more. For context, our assignments are due before the hour, sharp. Even one second after the hour, the assignment would be considered incomplete and graded with zero marks. At 20:58, the code finally uploaded and compiled. Another class down, one more assignment to go. Notes from one of the labs in 6.034 Artificial Intelligence A Non-photorealistic rendering of a pic of my familys puppers For my HASS class, 21M.734 Lighting Design, we had our final project presentations the week before, and our last assignment was a reflection write-up. I finished it the next day, and turned it in. My last assignment for Junior fall complete, Im free. No more finals, no more psets, no more classes. A Shot from my groups final presentation to a scene in Waiting for Godot Its felt quite anti-climatic to be done, a feeling that seems to repeat itself semester after semester. You turn in your last pset, present your final projects, complete your final exams. Youre done. You might celebrate a bit, go out with friends, treat yourself to a good nights sleep (read: crash after being sleep deprived for days). But theres nothing after that, at least not for a few weeks. And its a good thing. But at least for me, its hard to completely relax and resume to normalcy after the most intense and grueling final days of the semester. Since turning in my final assignment, Ive felt the need to study for a coming exam, start a next pset. But I dont. Its a funny feeling, really. With all my classes complete, I feel a bit aimless, no structure or regiment to follow, no one big objective to tackle next. It will take a few days before I can fully relax and clear my mind. Instead of flying home like I did last semester, I took a spontaneous trip to NYC with a friend to visit our friend, Class of 2017, for his birthday. We took the bus, which took almost 7 hours to navigate through rush-hour traffic and sleet conditions. We took a grand food tour of the city, walking over 25,000 steps in one day throughout the streets of Manhattan and window-shopped, sight-seeing, and eating at bakeries, cafes, and restaurants along the way. It was wonderful to be back in one of my favorite cities, celebrate the end of the semester, and just have fun. Pics from a grand food tour of Manhattan But this week, Im back in Boston, and for the rest of Winter Break, to train for my upcoming competition. Its given me some much-needed structure during my time off. Its still finals week for most of the MIT community, but for me, I am wrapping up the year in a different way. I have a laundry list of things to do before I leave for ETH Zurich next semester forms to fill out, meetings to set up, all my stuff to pack up. In the meantime, Im trying to cram in as much elementary German that I can before I leave for an IAP trip to Germany, and then Switzerland. More on that in the next one! Post Tagged #21M.734 Lighting Design #6.034 #6.815 #HASS subjects #photography

The Best Kind of Sex Education - 708 Words

There is much controversy over which form of sex education should be taught, comprehensive sex education, or abstinence-only sex education. The definition for comprehensive sex education is responsible and balanced sexuality education that seeks to assist young people in understanding a positive view of sexuality, provide them with information and skills about caring for their sexual health, and help them acquire skills to make decisions now and in the future. It is medically accurate and provides information about abstinence and contraceptives as tools to prevent unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. On the other hand, abstinence only sex education is a form of sex education that teaches abstinence from sex. This type of sex education promotes sexual abstinence until marriage and avoids discussion of use of contraceptives. Comprehensive sex education goes against some family morals and encourages teenagers to have sex. But abstinence only sex education does not tea ch students enough about sex or how to protect themselves from STDs and pregnancy. Comprehensive sex education should be mandatory in all of our nation’s schools. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, sex education was strongly effected by Victorian values. Sex education at that time taught that sexually transmitted diseases were the result of punishment for immoral behaviors. The discussion over what to teach children about sex in school occurred as early as 1912. In the 1950’s theShow MoreRelatedSingle-Sex Schools Benefits974 Words   |  4 PagesSingle-sex school s benefits In some countries single-sex schools is not provided and against the law. In 2002, only a dozen schools were separating sexes and this research is according to the National Association for Single Sex Public Education. Many parents believe that placing their child in single-sex schools give them sexual freedom. Students in single-sex school benefit more than those in co-education. It improves the behaviour, performance of the students, although boys and girlsRead MoreThe Elementary School Sex Education Debate Essay823 Words   |  4 PagesGrade School Sex Ed. 1 The Elementary School Sexual Education Debate Sara Vanbuskirk English Comp. 1 Professor Evans November 29, 2011 Grade School Sex Ed. 2 Abstract Controversy is rampant regarding the sexual education of grade school children. Some insist that it is prudent to educate children on this subject beginning as early as kindergarten. Others strongly disagree that earlier education has any effect at all on teen sex and pregnancy and, therefore, abstinence shouldRead MoreSex Education in the U.S. and Japan Essay1202 Words   |  5 Pagesbeen discussed for decades to decrease teenage pregnancy and sex related diseases. According to The National Campaign to prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy (2013), the U.S. has the highest rate of teenage pregnancy among developed countries, and about sixty eight girls per thousand became pregnant in 2008. To change this situation, the U.S. provides two kinds of sex education: abstinence-only sex education and comprehensive sex education. In contrast, Japan has one of the lowest rates among developedRead MoreShould Sex Education Be Legal?1680 Words   |  7 PagesSex: the elephant in the room no one likes to talk about. It is a natural act humans have done for years but also a taboo to show or acknowledge. Sex, despite being taboo, is omnipresent. It is present in discussions of God, television, dating, and other areas, all of which have played a role into my understanding of sex and sexuality. However, public education has ultimately been the main factor in maintaining my personal safe sex life. Many parents debate whether sex education should remain inRead MoreTeenage Pregnancy And Condom Use1459 Words   |  6 PagesRogerian essay Teenage pregnancy and condom use Teenage pregnancy and condom use are one of the greatest debated and an issue that people cannot seem to agree on. While some parties feel that giving teenagers’ sex education starting from an early age will go a long way in helping curb teenage pregnancies, others feel that this only accelerates the rate at which teenagers are getting pregnant with the constant exposure to information that they use wrongly. The main concern in this topic is how toRead MoreTeenage Pregnancy Essays1358 Words   |  6 Pagesand attention that they deserve, but the Republican platform of abstinence-only education leaves too much to chance and sets young people up for failure. On the other hand, Marian Wright Edelman points out in her article Teen Pregnancy in America Today that everyone - both liberals and conservatives should be able to agree that it is in everyone’s best interest when teenagers wait before making the decision to have sex, which could result in unplanned pregnancies. She points out that it is everyone’sRead MoreDana Hall Co-Educational .Doc937 Words   |  4 Pagesembrace co-education as opposed to single-sex education for their all girl boarding school? Right now it appears that given how strong some of the individuals in leadership feel as well as the teachers of the school that Dana Hall should remain a single-sex educational system. Elaine Betts must submit to the mission review committee the pros and cons of the issue so they can make a solid decision based on all the facts. What follows are the results of her research. Claims for Single-Sex Education Read MoreSociety Divided By Sexual Education Program Essay1698 Words   |  7 Pagesbecame pregnant, leading to high rates of school dropouts and increasing poverty in certain areas of the country. In her article â€Å"Society Divided by Sexual Education Program,† journalist Rosalia Simmons exposes the different perspectives the Panamanian society has regarding the law 61, which consists of the implementation of a sexual education subject in the curriculum of all the schools in Panama, whose main target is students from age 5 to 18 (Simmons). Thousands of people protested all throughoutRead MoreInfanticide And Single Sex Education1284 Words   |  6 PagesCoeducation and single-sex education are both extensively used around the world. By the 1980s, more and more schools which only severed male or female became coed. Even though, many parents still send their kids to only men school or only women school now days. Then why would some people choo se a only men or only women school? Is it against the â€Å"gender equality†? In the early civilizations, education was informally and it was primarily households. As time passed, people began to get educated moreRead MoreSex Education Is The Teaching Of Issues1048 Words   |  5 PagesSex education is the teaching of issues relating to human sexuality and behavior, including anatomy, reproduction, health relationships, responsibilities, abstinence, and birth control. This information can be taught by parents or guardians, provided by school programs or public health organizations and campaigns. Sex education also develops young people s skills so that they can make the most informed choices when it comes to their behavior, and feel confident enough and competent about acting

Civil War in Literature and Film - 1212 Words

BGS 3996-The American Civil War in Literature and Film Fall 2013 Final Paper December 7, 2013 BGS 3996-The American Civil War Final Paper The American Civil War was a dark time in our nation’s history, but as with most events in history, there are both positive and negative aspects and conclusions to be drawn from this war. How someone views the positives vs. negatives is going to vary based on what side of the war they find themselves agreeing with and supporting. If your family had strong southern ties, what you view as a negative is likely to be seen as positive to someone from the northern states. This would especially be true when looking at the war from a â€Å"costs of war† perspective; it is arguable that the South lost much,†¦show more content†¦The South however had nowhere near the same development, which severely crippled their ability to move goods and people during the war. The telegraph was another part of the infrastructure that the North was able to facilitate, which led to communications abilities that had never before been available. Infrastructures weren’t the only tec hnological advances seen during the Civil War, more advanced weapons and the use of the first submarine by the U. S. Navy were also realized during this war. Perhaps the greatest outcome to the Civil War was the fact that in the end, this country stayed together and didn’t break apart to form two separate nations. Although most of the destruction took place in the South, the Northern states were able to assist with rebuilding after the war was over, Lincoln made sure that there were designs in place to return the South to normal as soon as possible following the end of the war, unfortunately he wasn’t around to make sure that it happened as planned. Because of this a lot of different opinions on how Reconstruction should proceed were brought forth, and it ended up being a long uphill battle, but nonetheless, the South was rebuilt. Given all of the costs and disadvantages versus the advantages and few good things to come out of the Civil War, I can undoubtedly sayShow M oreRelatedEssay on The Killer Angels by Michael Sharra1446 Words   |  6 Pagesduring the Civil War. Initially intended as a TV mini series, Gettysburg was produced as a full-length feature film. The film glorifies Union and Confederate soldiers in the historic bloodbath of Gettysburg. The film enables viewers to experience a first hand account of the spirit and battleground of the four-day battle. This permits for a more personalized account of the war. As viewers, we must keep in mind that the film is based off a fictitious book. What that means, is that the film should notRead MoreCivil War702 Words   |  3 PagesConfederates reunion in New Orleans, 1903The Civil War is one of the central events in Americas collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books and archival collections. The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in the wars aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, eva luations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war.[247] The last theme includes moral evaluationsRead MoreThe Student Union Development in 1960s and 1970s Essay742 Words   |  3 Pagesthe 1960s the USA was benefiting from post war affluence. People had more money because their wages had increased. This meant that parents were able to give their children pocket-money. Children were then able to spend this money on the things that were available at the time. These were things like going to the cinema. In the cinema they could see films made by Hollywood about daredevil young men living on the edge. The films gave the impression it was good to live forRead MoreTHE FORGOTTEN HISTORY OF THE WESTERN CINEMA1400 Words   |  6 PagesTHE FORGOTTEN HISTORY OF THE WESTERN CINEMA The western movies are film genre where the scene generally takes place in North America during the American conquest of the West in the last decades of the nineteenth century. This genre appears since the invention of the cinema in 1985 finding its inspiration from literature and painting arts of the American Wild West. This genre reached its first success in the mid-twentieth century during the golden age of Hollywood studios, before it had being reinventedRead MoreThe Reality Of War By Ambrose Bierce1254 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"The Reality of War† Death; destruction; crawling, bloody men without jaws; and a child in the middle of it is just a glimpse of the grotesque short narrative â€Å"Chickamauga† by Ambrose Bierce. Chickamauga Creek is an area near Chattanooga, Tennessee and northwestern Georgia, plagued by war, suffering, and bloodshed from the Civil War (Bohannon). Bierce served in the Union Army during the American Civil War (Campbell). Many Americans then, and today, romanticize war with glory, heroism, and patriotismRead More The Harlem Renaissance Essay1145 Words   |  5 PagesAmerican culture flourished, especially in areas such as music, art, literature, dance, and even in film. This soon became known as the Harlem Renaissance. With the entire positive and the negative situations of this time period the African Americans still seemed to have it all. The Harlem Renaissance came about because of the changes that had taken place in the African American community after the abolition of slavery because of Worl d War I and the social and cultural changes in early 20th century inRead MoreDiction And Reflection In Literature769 Words   |  4 PagesDuring this course, I acquired a sizable list of skills regarding literature and government. First, I learned the many symbols and themes of novels by reading How to Read Literature Like a Professor at the beginning of the course. Additionally, while reading Things Fall Apart, I learned about the fragility and danger of male masculinity, as well as how to recognize underlying messages in the way an author uses tone, diction, and omission. Furthermore, during the government and economics part ofRead MoreChild Soldier As A Victim Of Warfare1354 Words   |  6 Pagessoldier literature is, for someone amateur first-hand in atrocity, to be humbled. For such a reader inescapably bestows moral authority to those authors prematurely enlist to fight in hostilities, or who dare mention a fictional demonstration of the same. A sterling similarity which wi ll be noticed at once we go through all these three pieces of works is their dealing with child soldiers. Portraying child soldiers as a victim of warfare is a common phenomenon in recent African fiction and film. ThroughRead MoreThe Events Between 1939-1945 Became A Prominent Features Of The British World War1744 Words   |  7 PagesAs Europe dealt with the weight of memory left behind by the Second World War, it was apparent that the events between 1939-1945 became a prominent feature of the British psyche. Since 1945 Anglo-German relations have for the most part been civil on a political platform, yet on a broader scale perceptions of Germany have been dominated by images of the Second World War and Germany’s Nazi past. Television, alongside with other forms of popular culture offer an insight into this British obsession.Read MoreInfluences on Stephen Cranes The Red Badge of Courage1445 Words   |  6 Pagessources of knowledge, which ultimately affects the impact they have on the world. Stephen Crane was greatly impacted by the time period in which he lived. One such influence was the popular literary style of Realism. Realism is the trend in which literature is based on the true nature of everyday occurrences devoid of any fantasy or romance. It is the raw depiction of what life and society is actually like. This literary style can be found in many of Stephen Crane’s novels. Religion also had a significant

Talk On Diabetes Free Essays

The views, opinions and data expressed here are for educational purposes only, and do not warrant the opinions of Talkativeness Please read the disclaimer first before continuing. Select a page Alexander tech n Sarsaparilla (also spelled sarsaparilla or spiritual) is a beanlike woody plant that’s indigenous to the Central and South America rain forests, Mexico, various parts of Australia, the Caribbean, Jamaica and Southeast Asia. Central and South American tribes used sarsaparilla to treat various skin conditions, rheumatism, ere sexual impotence and increase energy. We will write a custom essay sample on Talk On Diabetes or any similar topic only for you Order Now The Alexander etc way of learning ho get rid of harmful your body Listen to or Description of the Technique. The use of sarsaparilla in herbal medicine practices gained popularity in the 16th century, after it was brought from Mexico to Europe. European doctors believed the plant had diuretic and purifying pope r and could serve as a cure for sexually transmitted diseases. How to cite Talk On Diabetes, Papers

My ACL OWW!! free essay sample

Summer is supposed to be a happy time. But—for me—it was heartbreak and agony. Summer league basketball game changed my summer. And my life. Forever. POP. My ACL was torn and I knew it. Right away. As I looked into the crowd, limping off the court, I saw my parents’ faces. They had heartbreak on their faces. As soon as the doctor gave us the verdict about the tear—â€Å"Your ACL is torn and you will be out of sports for nine months†Ã¢â‚¬â€I knew my summer was over and the heartbreak set in. Surgery was scheduled a month later†¦I had never had surgery before and didn’t know what to expect. As I sat in the hospital waiting I thought, What if my muscles don’t except the surgery? What if my heart stops? How much will my mom be worrying while I’m in surgery? After surgery, I had physical therapy for weeks and a nine month recovery ahead of me. We will write a custom essay sample on My ACL OWW!! or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Physical therapy showed my true character because I was willing to fight through pain and disappointment. It was a struggle every day and I knew the more I worked at it, the faster recovery I would have. My doctor didn’t allow me to participate in any physical activity for nine months, which for me felt like an eternity. In that nine month span I had decided to quit playing competitive basketball for good and that I would focus on my favorite sport†¦golf. Golf was my true passion in life and I knew that if I worked hard enough I could succeed. When I quit basketball and focused on golf, I found reward in a collegiate scholarship. This was a huge deal for my family and I. Everyone was excited and happy that I had reached my final goal of a collegiate scholarship.

A Comparison of Ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian Societies free essay sample

Although Egypt and Mesopotamia were both early agricultural societies built upon the water provided by the major rivers which sustained them, they exhibited important differences as a consequence of the different physical environments in which they developed. In this paper I will first focus on what I consider to be the major aspects of these differences in environment and then explore the consequences of these differences in their religious beliefs, political organization and commercial practices. A major difference in physical environment between these ancient societies was the seasonal river flows on which they depended for farming. The Nile which supported early Egyptian civilization was characterized by predictable and annual flooding in the early fall. These floods occurred after crops were harvested. This pattern was a consequence of the regular late summer monsoon rains which fell at its headwaters. The Nile also possessed a large spreading delta area that gave rise to natural irrigation canals that would flood the areas between them with fertile nutrients for the next planting year. We will write a custom essay sample on A Comparison of Ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian Societies or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The Tigris and Euphrates rivers which supported the Mesopotamian society would typically flood in the late spring just when crops would be ripening, often with disastrous results on harvests. This pattern was a result of these waters originating from winter snow melt in the Anatolian mountains (now in present day Turkey) where these rivers originated. These floods sometimes caused the rivers to change their course abruptly cutting off fields from water. Another primary physical difference contributing to cultural differences was the relative isolation in which ancient Egypt developed compared to Mesopotamia. According to our text book ‘Egypt’s natural isolation and material self-sufficiency fostered a unique culture that for long periods of time had relatively little to do with other civilizations’. In contrast, Mesopotamia was open to migration or invasion and was dependent on imported resources. Also many different ethnic peoples contributed to the growth of Mesopotamian society. The religious beliefs of Egypt and Mesopotamia were influenced by many factors. The rivers, every day objects, and the beliefs of the people. In Egypt in contrast to Mesopotamia the Pharaoh was considered to be a god in addition to being the supreme ruler. He was the main god of their religion. In Egypt people praised their gods for the annual flooding of the Nile. However in Mesopotamia the people were frightened of their gods because ‘the gods could alter the landscape’ arbitrarily. In return they gave their gods gifts in hopes of appeasing them. In both of the civilizations religion was polytheistic, i. e. , having many gods. The political organization of Egypt was based on the central authority of the Pharaoh. Since he was the embodied form of a god, he was the law. He chose where the capitol would be located, such a Thebes, Memphis, etc. Although smaller cities existed in ancient Egypt the majority of Egyptians appeared to live in small farming villages. In contrast, Mesopotamia was built around a number of independent city states surrounded by farming villages. Many of these cities competed with each other or even warred with each other to become a dominant center of power. No uniform basis for law or justice existed in this decentralized environment until Hammurabi succeeded in becoming the first king of Babylon and established the Babylonian Empire with control over all of Mesopotamia. He created a law code of which may copies were made. These inscribed tablets were sent to the different clans of Mesopotamia and became a basis for a uniform legal system, including classification of the people living under his dominion The commercial activities in Mesopotamia were quite extensive as a result of the requirement to develop trading relationships between the different city states and other regions to obtain needed resources. This resulted in the development of a merchant class in the urban centers unlike the situation in Egypt. Trade was based on bartering rather than money. Goods traded included wood, metals, and stone in exchange for wool, cloth, barley, and vegetable oil. These practices required the development of the skills needed for acquiring, transporting, and protecting valuable commodities. According to our textbook, independent merchants and merchant guilds had gained considerable influence in Mesopotamian society by the second 2000 BC. A Comparison of Ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian Societies free essay sample Although Egypt and Mesopotamia were both early agricultural societies built upon the water provided by the major rivers which sustained them, they exhibited important differences as a consequence of the different physical environments in which they developed. In this paper I will first focus on what I consider to be the major aspects of these differences in environment and then explore the consequences of these differences in their religious beliefs, political organization and commercial practices. A major difference in physical environment between these ancient societies was the seasonal river flows on which they depended for farming. The Nile which supported early Egyptian civilization was characterized by predictable and annual flooding in the early fall. These floods occurred after crops were harvested. This pattern was a consequence of the regular late summer monsoon rains which fell at its headwaters. The Nile also possessed a large spreading delta area that gave rise to natural irrigation canals that would flood the areas between them with fertile nutrients for the next planting year. We will write a custom essay sample on A Comparison of Ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian Societies or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The Tigris and Euphrates rivers which supported the Mesopotamian society would typically flood in the late spring just when crops would be ripening, often with disastrous results on harvests. This pattern was a result of these waters originating from winter snow melt in the Anatolian mountains (now in present day Turkey) where these rivers originated. These floods sometimes caused the rivers to change their course abruptly cutting off fields from water. Another primary physical difference contributing to cultural differences was the relative isolation in which ancient Egypt developed compared to Mesopotamia. According to our text book ‘Egypt’s natural isolation and material self-sufficiency fostered a unique culture that for long periods of time had relatively little to do with other civilizations’. In contrast, Mesopotamia was open to migration or invasion and was dependent on imported resources. Also many different ethnic peoples contributed to the growth of Mesopotamian society. The religious beliefs of Egypt and Mesopotamia were influenced by many factors. The rivers, every day objects, and the beliefs of the people. In Egypt in contrast to Mesopotamia the Pharaoh was considered to be a god in addition to being the supreme ruler. He was the main god of their religion. In Egypt people praised their gods for the annual flooding of the Nile. However in Mesopotamia the people were frightened of their gods because ‘the gods could alter the landscape’ arbitrarily. In return they gave their gods gifts in hopes of appeasing them. In both of the civilizations religion was polytheistic, i. e. , having many gods. The political organization of Egypt was based on the central authority of the Pharaoh. Since he was the embodied form of a god, he was the law. He chose where the capitol would be located, such a Thebes, Memphis, etc. Although smaller cities existed in ancient Egypt the majority of Egyptians appeared to live in small farming villages. In contrast, Mesopotamia was built around a number of independent city states surrounded by farming villages. Many of these cities competed with each other or even warred with each other to become a dominant center of power. No uniform basis for law or justice existed in this decentralized environment until Hammurabi succeeded in becoming the first king of Babylon and established the Babylonian Empire with control over all of Mesopotamia. He created a law code of which may copies were made. These inscribed tablets were sent to the different clans of Mesopotamia and became a basis for a uniform legal system, including classification of the people living under his dominion The commercial activities in Mesopotamia were quite extensive as a result of the requirement to develop trading relationships between the different city states and other regions to obtain needed resources. This resulted in the development of a merchant class in the urban centers unlike the situation in Egypt. Trade was based on bartering rather than money. Goods traded included wood, metals, and stone in exchange for wool, cloth, barley, and vegetable oil. These practices required the development of the skills needed for acquiring, transporting, and protecting valuable commodities. According to our textbook, independent merchants and merchant guilds had gained considerable influence in Mesopotamian society by the second 2000 BC.

Using the theory of fiscal federalism Essay Example

Using the theory of fiscal federalism Essay Example Using the theory of fiscal federalism Essay Using the theory of fiscal federalism Essay Essay Topic: Economics There is much economic literature and debate concerning the classic trade-off between a centralized versus decentralized system of local public good provision. The standard problem goes as follows. Most economies around the world are made up of geographically discrete areas. An obvious example is America, which is composed of distinct states, which are often even completely geographically isolated from the whole (Alaska, Hawaii). Each local area has a local public good, the provision of which benefits the local society. However, public goods often have a spillover effect to other districts, in which case, there are benefits accruing to wider society. The subsequent question is that given the existence of benefits to both local and general society, is it more efficient to have a centralized or decentralized system of decision-making and/or financing? The standard approach to the problem of public good provision assumes that in a centralized system, the government will adopt a standardized level of spending for each area. This is in essence a one size fits all result that doesnt show an appreciation of different local requirements. However, while a decentralized system will be able to respond to heterogeneous local needs, local governments will neglect the wider benefits, which accrue citizens and areas beyond their jurisdiction. Drawing on these assumptions, Oates Decentralization Theorem states that in the absence of spillovers a decentralized system is more efficient. Otherwise, Oates claims there will be a trade-off between the extent of heterogeneity in tastes and the degree of spillovers. 1 However, the argument for a decentralized system relies on the assumption that only a decentralized system will cater for local preferences. In fact, while decentralization may be more effective at tailoring public goods to local requirements, a centralized system in no way implies uniformity of provision across districts. This logic is neither theoretically, or indeed empirically satisfactory. From a theoretical standpoint it is unclear, Besley and Coates question why it must be the case that a government charged with providing public goods in a centralized system cannot differentiate the levels according to the heterogeneous tastes in each district. 3 An empirical example of centralized differentiation of public good provision is that of federal highway spending in the United States. In the Federal Highway Aid Program a significant proportion of resources have been dedicated to specific projects in the legislators districts. Furthermore, Besley and Coates argue that the general spending formula has been manipulated to target spending to particular favored states. 4 Therefore, I believe that Oates Decentralization Theorem is flawed. A decentralized system may well be preferred as a more efficient arrangement to tailor goods to local needs, but this is not a clear-cut argument, and hence it is difficult and controversial to argue for decentralization solely on this basis. In fact, given that the standard approach is based on a trade-off between non-uniformity (decentralized output) versus spillovers (centralized output), once the constraint that central governments always choose uniform levels of public spending across districts is relaxed, the standard approach suggests that a centralized system will always be preferred. However there is a different case for a decentralized system of provision of local goods, which is based on the theory of fiscal federalism. The argument in this case goes as follows. In a centralized system, local public spending costs are shared creating a conflict of interest between citizens in different areas. When spending decisions are taken by a legislature of locally elected representatives, the conflict of interest for resources will take place in the legislature. Thus, Besley and Coates argue, the drawbacks of centralization stem from the basic conflict of interest among citizens of different districts working through the decision-making process. 5 Spending decisions in the legislator will be determined by a minimum winning coalition of representative, which can creates two major resource allocation problems. Firstly, there will be a misallocation of resources as spending will be skewed towards those areas who have representatives in the winning coalition. Secondly, uncertainty about the makeup of the winning coalition will mean districts are unsure of the amount of public good it will receive. Even if the legislature is committed to maximising the surplus of all its members, this would not necessarily be sufficient to achieve surplus maximizing results, as there would be an incentive for voters to elect representatives which high demand for public spending, and hence lead to overprovision. Hence, Besley and Coates say that: if decisions on local public goods are made by a minimum winning coalition of representatives, the allocation of public goods may be characterized by uncertainty and misallocation across districts. If decisions are made in a more cooperative way, then strategic delegation via elections may produce excessive public spending. 6 The drawbacks of a centralized system stemming from conflicting interests over shared costs might suggest a completely decentralized system whereby decisions are made solely by local government and financed from local taxation. However, as with the standard approach, the drawbacks of the centralized system must be weighed against the benefits of improved coordination of spillovers. If interests are fairly homogenous and spillovers high then a centralized system will produce good results regardless of how the legislature is constituted. This leads Besley and Coates to conclude that, the desiderata determining whether decentralization of centralization is best are the same as under the standard approach. However, the logic is different. 7 So how does this argument relate to the empirical example of the European Union? Unions such as the EU are collectives of nations that jointly decide on the provision of certain supranational goods (such as traditional public goods like defence or legal and regulatory frameworks), which will affect and benefit all members. In a multi country union, some competences are taken away from national control and decided instead at union level. The process of European integration has become far-reaching and quickened in pace. However, Gordon Brown says that the EU must abandon old flawed assumptions that a single market should lead inexorably to fiscal federalism. 8 What is the case for keeping decentralized provision of local public goods or for greater integration in the form of a centralized system of public good provision? The case of centralized system of provision of local public goods rests fundamentally on the trade-off between the internalisation of externalities and the costs of heterogeneity. On the one hand, even when looking at the difficulties that accompany reaching compromises and solutions at EU summits, there is little debate that median preferences in EU member states vary considerably. The efficient level of output of a public good will typically vary from one local jurisdiction to another. Furthermore, there is a worry that coordination of fiscal measures will result in an increase in tax rates in all jurisdictions. However, if the union centralizes to little, it runs the risk of not benefit from externalities, which were a key motivation in the creation of a union and the purpose of attending summits. Two main areas of externality proposed in the fiscal federalism literature are firstly equalisation of welfare across countries, especially targeted at poor relief. And secondly at macroeconomic stabilization. In the case of poor relief, sub-central government will be considerably constrained by the potential mobility of the poor and crucially the tax base. Oates says that this is a basic fiscal externality that results in sub optional levels of support under a purely decentralized system of poor relief. 10 In terms of macroeconomic stabilization, the central government is in a position to influence overall levels of aggregate demand and through tax revenue and transfer payments can respond to changes in the macro-economy. However, the present picture is one where, according to Oates, the central government is not well equipped to take a leading role in addressing Musgravess redistribution and stabilization functions. 11 One response would be to enlarge central government powers, but Oates says that the costs of overall public expansion in the public sector would outweigh the benefits. Instead there is a strong case for decentralization to promote inter-jurisdictional competition to limit growth of public sector on encroaching on the private sector. At the moment, it seems to me that there is too much heterogeneity amongst the European nations, which outweighs externality gains. The integration of Europe has been relatively fast and I believe it will take a longer period for homogeneity of interests across the Union to come about, especially given the integration of the young market economies of Eastern Europe who are lagging behind in economic development. Furthermore, concerning Besley and Coates legislature worries, the EU seems to be dominated by the more powerful countries. For example, amongst the net beneficiaries of CAP (common agricultural policy) are some of the richest countries in the EU. A centralized system of provision of public goods in the EU might suffer from similar problems of a skewing of resources to favour the dominant coalition in the legislature. It seems to me, that the European Union is not yet ready for fiscal federalism.